Carsten Stahn
Professor of International Criminal Law & Global Justice
- Name
- Prof.dr. C. Stahn LLM
- Telephone
- +31 70 800 8272
- c.stahn@law.leidenuniv.nl
- ORCID iD
- 0000-0002-3187-5497
Carsten Stahn has been Professor of International Criminal Law and Global Justice at Leiden Law School since 2010.
More information about Carsten Stahn
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Carsten Stahn is Professor of International Criminal Law and Global Justice. He has previously worked as a research fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law (2000-2003), as a legal officer in the chambers of the International Criminal Court (2003-2007) and as a reader in Public International Law and International Criminal Justice at Swansea University. He obtained his PhD degree (summa cum laude) from Humboldt University Berlin after completing his First and Second State Exam in Law in Germany. He holds LLM degrees from New York University and Cologne/Paris I (Panthéon-Sorbonne).
He is author of The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration: Versailles to Iraq and Beyond (CUP, 2008/2010) which received the Ciardi Prize 2009 of the International Society for Military Law and the Law of War. He has published over 60 articles and essays in different fields of international law and edited several collections of essays in the field. His most recent books include the Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court (OUP, 2015), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundations (OUP 2014), and Peace Diplomacy, Global Justice and International Agency (CUP 2014). In 2010, he received a VIDI grant under the Innovational Research Incentives Scheme of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) for a five-year research project on the ‘Role and contours of a contemporary Jus Post Bellum’.
He is also project leader of a four-year research project on Post-Conflict Justice and Local Ownership, supported by NWO. He is Editor of The Leiden Studies on the Frontiers of International Law, General Editor the Leiden Journal of International Law, Editor of the Criminal Law Forum and Correspondent of the Netherlands International Law Review. His work has been cited in the jurisprudence of the ICC, the ICJ and the European Court of Human Rights.
Professor of International Criminal Law & Global Justice
- Faculteit Rechtsgeleerdheid
- Instituut voor Publiekrecht
- Grotius Centre for Intern Legal Studies
- Stahn C. & Braga da Silva R. (Eds.) (2024), The International Criminal Court in its third decade: reflecting on law and practices. Nijhoff Law Specials no. 109. Leiden | Boston: Brill | Nijhoff.
- Stahn C. (2024), The ICC in its third decade: setting the scene. In: Stahn C. & Braga da Silva R. (Eds.), The international criminal court in its third decade: reflecting on law and practices. Nijhoff Law Specials no. 109. Leiden | Boston: Brill | Nijhoff. 3-40.
- Stahn C. (2024), Re-imaging the ICC in a multipolar world. In: Stahn C. & Braga da Silva R. (Eds.), The international criminal court in its third decade: reflecting on law and practices. Nijhoff Law Specials no. 109. Leiden | Boston: Brill | Nijhoff. 562-594.
- Stahn C. (2023), From ‘Uniting for Peace’ to ‘Uniting for Justice?’: Reflections on the Power of the UN General Assembly to Create Criminal Tribunals or Make Referrals to the ICC, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 55: 251-286.
- Stahn C. (2023), Beyond Cultural Internationalism?: International Law and the Return of Cultural Colonial Objects. In: McCormack T. (Ed.), Reflections on International Law: Studies in Honour of Lindy Melman. Leiden | Boston: Brill | Nijhoff. 192-210.
- Stahn C. (2023), Confronting colonial objects: histories, legalities, and access to culture. Cultural Heritage Law and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. (2023), The art of reinvention: the Rome Statute commentary in its third decade, Criminal Law Forum 34(4): 423-433.
- Stahn C. (2023), 10 ans d’exercice du Mécanisme: Un retour sur la mise en œuvre et les défis rencontrés. In: Fernandez J., de Frouville O. & Rebut D. (Eds.), Permanence et renouveau de la Justice pénale internationale: septièmes journées de la justice pénale internationale. Paris: Pedone. 21-38.
- Ambos K., Braga da Silva R., Hayes N., Powderly J.C., Stahn C. & Herik L.J. van den (2022), Article 7: crimes against humanity. In: Ambos K. (Ed.), Rome statute of the international criminal court: article-by-article commentary. Munich: C.H. Beck. 135-316.
- Stahn C. (2022), Beyond “To Return or Not To Return”: The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?, Santander Art and Culture Law Review 8(2): 29-68.
- Stahn C. (2021), How can we justify international criminal justice?. In: Blokker N., Dam-de Jong D. & Prislan V. (Eds.), Furthering the Frontiers of International Law: Sovereignty, Human Rights, Sustainable Development. Leiden : Brill. 377-413.
- Stahn C. (30 March 2021), ‘One Must Imagine Sisyphus Happy’: On the Liberating Potential of Robinson’s Coherentist Approach to International Criminal Justice. Opinio Juris. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (1 July 2021), Why a Higher Gravity Threshold May be Part of the Problem Rather than a Solution to the ICC’s Dilemmas. ICC Forum. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (2020), Liberaller Romantiklere Karşı: Gelişmekte Olan Kurumsal Uluslararası Ceza Hukukunun Zorlukları [Liberals vs Romantics: Challenges of an Emerging Corporate International Criminal Law] (translation: Öztürk O.), Çankaya Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi (Çankaya University Law School Journal) 5(1-3): 4015-4045.
- Stahn C. (2020), Justice as Message: Expressivist Foundations of International Criminal Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. & Iverson J. (Eds.) (2020), Just Peace after Conflict: Jus Post Bellum and the Justice of Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C., Agius C., Brammertz S. & Rohan C. (Eds.) (2020), Legacies of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. (2020), Öffnung im Umgang mit dem eigenen judikativen Erbe? 150 Bände BVerfGE, das Phänomen der Pfadabhängigkeit und Vergessen II als Chance, Europäische Grundrechte-Zeitschrift 47(17-19): 524-538.
- Agirre X., Bergsmo M., De Smet S. & Stahn C. (Eds.) (2020), Quality Control in Criminal Investigation. Publication Series / Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher (TOAEP) no. 38. Brussels: Torkel Academic EPublisher Opsahl.
- Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (Eds.) (2020), Quality control in fact-finding [second edition]. Publication Series / Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher (TOAEP) no. 19. Brussels: Torkel Academic EPublisher Opsahl.
- Stahn C. (2020), Reckoning with Colonial Injustice: International Law as culprit and as remedy?, Leiden Journal of International Law 33(4): 823-835.
- Stahn C. (2020), Performance Indicators: A Double Edged Sword. In: Steinberg R.H. (Ed.), The International Criminal Court: Contemporary Challenges and Reform Proposals. Leiden: Brill. 186-196.
- Stahn C. (2020), Confronting Colonial Amnesia: Towards New Relational Engagement with Colonial Injustice and Cultural Colonial Objects, Journal of International Criminal Justice 18(4): 793-824.
- Stahn C. (2020), The ICTY is Dead! Long Live the ICTY!: ICTY Legacies in Perspective. In: Stahn C., Agius C., Brammertz S. & Rohan C. (Eds.), Legacies of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 71-82.
- Aksenova M., Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (2020), Non-Criminal Justice Fact-Work in the Age of Accountability. In: Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (Eds.), Quality Control in Fact-Finding [second edition]. Publication Series / Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher (TOAEP) no. 19. Brussels: Torkel Academic EPublisher Opsahl. 1-44.
- Stahn C. (2020), From Preliminary Examination to Investigation: Rethinking the Connection. In: Agirre X., Bergsmo M., Smet S. de & Stahn C. (Eds.), Quality Control in Criminal Investigation. Publication Series / Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher (TOAEP) no. 38. Brussels: Torkel Academic EPublisher Opsahl. 37-66.
- Stahn C. (2020), Jus Post Bellum and Just Peace: An Introduction. In: Stahn C. & Iverson J. (Eds.), Just Peace After Conflict: Jus Post Bellum and the Justice of Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1-26.
- Stahn C. & Braga da Silva R. (2019), Article 69: Preuves. In: Fernandez J., Pacreau X. & Ubéda-Saillard M. (Eds.), Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale: Commentaire article par article. Paris: Pedone. 490-516.
- Stahn C. (2018), A Critical Introduction to International Criminal Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (Eds.) (2018), Quality Control in Preliminary Examination Volume 1: Torkel Opsahl Academic ePublisher.
- Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (Eds.) (2018), Quality Control in Preliminary Examinations Volume 2: Torkel Opsahl Academic ePublisher.
- Stahn C. (2018), Liberals vs Romantics: Challenges of an Emerging Corporate International Criminal Law, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 50(1): 91-125.
- Stahn C., Bergsmo M. & Chan H.S.I. (2018), On the Magic, Mystery and Mayhem of Preliminary Examinations. In: Bergsmo M. & Stahn C. (Eds.), Quality Control in Preliminary Examinations. Volume 1. Publication Series / Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher (TOAEP) no. 32. Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic ePublisher. 1-32.
- Stahn C. (2018), ICTY and the New Law on Genocide. In: Hoogstraten S. van (Ed.), New Challenges to International Law: A View From the Hague. Nijhoff Law Specials no. 96. Leiden: Brill | Nijhoff. 126-140.
- Harwood C.E.M. & Stahn C. (2018), Principle 13: Publicizing the Commission’s Reports. In: Haldemann F. & Unger T. (Eds.), The United Nations Principles to Combat Impunity: A Commentary. Oxford Commentaries on International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 152-163.
- Stahn C. (2017), Damned If You do, Damned if You Don’t: Challenges and Critiques of Preliminary Examinations at the ICC, Journal of International Criminal Justice 15(3): 413-434.
- Stahn C. (2017), Daedalus or Icarus? Footprints of International Criminal Justice Over a Quarter of a Century, Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht = Heidelberg Journal of International Law 77: 371-408.
- Stahn C. (2017), Das Ringen um den Frieden: Jus ad bellum – Jus contra bellum – Jus Post Bellum?. In: Arnauld A. von (Ed.), Völkerrechtsgeschichte(n): Historische Narrative und Konzepte im Wandel. Veröffentlichungen des Walther-Schücking-Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel no. 196. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. 147-170.
- Stahn C., Iverson J.M. & Easterday J.S. (2017), Introduction: Protection of the Environment and Jus Post Bellum: Some Preliminary Reflections. In: Stahn C., Iverson J.M. & Easterday J.S. (Eds.), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace: Clarifying Norms, Principles, and Practices. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1-25.
- Stahn C., Iverson J.M. & Easterday J.S. (Eds.) (2017), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace: Clarifying Norms, Principles, and Practices. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. & Jacobs D.L. (2016), The interaction between human rights fact-finding and international criminal proceedings: Toward a (new) typology. In: Alston P. & Knuckey S. (Eds.), The Transformation of Human Rights Fact-Finding. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 257-280.
- Stahn C. (2016), Between 'Constructive Engagement', 'Collusion' and 'Critical Distance': The ICRC and the Development of International Criminal Law, Chinese Journal of International Law 15(1): 139-166.
- Stahn C. (2016), The ICC, Pre-Existing Jurisdictional Treaty Regimes, and the Limits of the Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet Doctrine, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 49(2): 443-454.
- Stahn C. (2016), Boundaries and Dividing Lines in Regimes of International Territorial Adminstration. In: , Droit des frontières internationales = The law of international borders. Paris: Pedone-Société française pour le droit international (SFDI). 231-242.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(a): "Murder". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 178-186.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(b): "Extermination". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 186-188.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(c): "Enslavement". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 188-192.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(d): "Deportation or forcible transfer of population". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 192-198.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(e): "Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 198-204.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(f): "Torture". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 204-206.
- Stahn C. (2016), Article 7(1)(k): "Other inhumane acts". In: Triffterer O. & Ambos K. (Eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Munich: CH Beck. 235-242.
- Stahn C. & Harwood C.E.M. (11 November 2016), What’s the point of ‘naming names’ in international inquiry? Counseling Caution in the Turn Towards Individual Responsibility. EJIL: Talk!: European Journal of International Law. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (6 December 2016), Regionalization as a Blessing or as a Curse? The EU and International Criminal Justice. Opinio Juris. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (16 March 2016), Book Discussion: Part of the Solution or Part of the Problem? International Criminal Justice and the Fragile Divide between Civil/Political and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. EJIL: Talk!: European Journal of International Law. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (23 September 2016), Tribunals are Dead, Long Live Tribunals: MICT, the Kosovo Specialist Chambers and the Turn to New Hybridity. EJIL: Talk!: European Journal of International Law. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (2015), Admissibility Challenges before the ICC: From Quasi-Primacy to Qualified Deference?. In: Stahn C. (Ed.), The Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 228–259.
- Stahn C. (2015), Justice civilisatrice? The ICC, post-colonial theory, and faces of ‘the local’. In: De Vos C. Kendall S. Stahn C. (Ed.), Contested Justice: The Politics and Practice of the International Criminal Court Interventions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 46 – 84.
- Stahn C. (Ed.) (2015), The Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C., De Vos C.M. & Kendall S. (Eds.) (2015), Contested Justice: The Policies and Practices of International Criminal Court Interventions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Harwood C.E.M. & Stahn C. (2015), Principle 13: Publicizing the Commission’s Reports. In: Gaeta P., Haldemann F. & Unger T. (Eds.), Commentary on the United Nations Set of Principles to Combat Impunity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. (2015), Evolution, Revolution or New Culture? The Changing Anatomy of International Criminal Justice (And Some of Its Curiosities), International Criminal Law Review 15(6): 1122-1137.
- Stahn C. (2015), Reparative Justice after the Lubanga Appeal Judgment: New Prospects for Expressivism and Participatory Justice or ‘Juridified Victimhood’ by Other Means?, Journal of International Criminal Justice 13(4): 801-813.
- Stahn C. (2015), Marital Stress or Grounds for Divorce? Re-Thinking the Relationship Between R2P and International Criminal Justice, Criminal Law Forum 26(1): 13-50.
- Stahn C. (2014), From ‘Conference Machinery’ to ‘Global Administration’? International Executive Authority beyond Hammarskjöld. In: Stahn C. Melber H. (Ed.), Peace Diplomacy, Global Justice and International Agency: Rethinking Human Security and Ethics in the Spirit of Dag Hammarskjöld. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 439– 475.
- Stahn C. (2014), Human security and ethics in the spirit of Dag Hammarskjöld: An Introduction. In: Stahn C. Melber H. (Ed.), Peace Diplomacy, Global Justice and International Agency: Rethinking Human Security and Ethics in the Spirit of Dag Hammarskjöld. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1 – 32.
- Stahn C. (2014), ‘R2P and Jus Post Bellum: Towards a Polycentric Approach’. In: Stahn C. Easterday S. Iverson J.M. (Ed.), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 102-121.
- Iverson J.M., Easterday J.S. & Stahn C. (2014), Exploring the Normative Foundations of Jus Post Bellum: An Introduction. In: Iverson J.M., Easterday J. & Stahn C. (Eds.), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1-11.
- Stahn C. (Ed.) (2014), Peace Diplomacy, Global Justice and International Agency: Rethinking Human Security and Ethics in the Spirit of Dag Hammarskjöld. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Stahn C., Easterday J. & Iverson J.M. (Eds.) (2014), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Stahn C. & De Brabandere E.C.P.D.C. (2014), The Future of International Legal Scholarship: Some Thoughts on ‘Practice’, ‘Growth’, and ‘Dissemination’, Leiden Journal of International Law 27(1): 1-10.
- Stahn C. (2014), Justice Delivered or Justice Denied? The Legacy of the Katanga Judgment, Journal of International Criminal Justice 12(4): 809-834.
- Stahn C. (2014), Complementarity and Cooperative Justice Ahead of Their Time? The UN War Crimes Commission and the Treatment of Facts and Evidence, Criminal Law Forum 25(1-2): 223-260.
- Stahn C. (2014), Between Law-breaking and Law-making: Syria, Humanitarian Intervention and ‘What the Law Ought to Be’, Journal of Conflict and Security Law 19(1): 25-48.
- Stahn C. & Harwood C.E.M. (1 May 2014), Why Reports about the Death of R2P May be Premature. ESIL Reflections Vol. 3(5): European Society for International Law. [blog entry].
- Stahn C. (2013), Syria and the Semantics of Intervention, Punishment and Aggression: On Red Lines and Blurred Lines, Journal of International Criminal Justice 11(5): 955-977.
- Stahn C. (2013), Sentencing Horror or Sentencing Heuristic’? A Reply to Heller’s ‘Sentence-Based’ Theory of Complementarity. In: Schabas W. McDermott Y. Hayes N. (Ed.), Ashgate Research Companion to International Criminal Law: Critical Perspectives. Farnham: Ashgate. 357-367.
- Stahn C. (2012), Libya, the ICC and Complementarity: A Test for 'Shared Responsibility', Journal of International Criminal Justice 10(2): 325-351.
- Herik L.J. van den & Stahn C. (Eds.) (2012), The Diversification and Fragmentation of International Criminal Law. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
- Stahn C. & Herik L.J. van den (2012), Fragmentation, Diversification and 3D Legal Pluralism: ICL as the Jack-in-the-Box?. In: Herik L.J. van den & Stahn C. (Eds.), Diversification and Fragmentation of International Criminal Law. Leiden Studies on the Frontiers of International Law no. 1. Leiden / Boston: Martinus Nijhoff. 21-87.
- Stahn C. (2012), One Step Forward, Two Steps Back?, Harvard International Law Journal 53(1): 183-196.
- Stahn C. (2012), Between 'Faith' and 'Facts': By What Standards Should We Assess International Criminal Justice, Leiden Journal of International Law 25: 251-282.
- Stahn C. (2011), Introduction: bridge over troubled waters?. In: Stahn C. El Zeidy M. (Ed.), The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: From Theory to Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1- 18.
- Stahn C. (2011), Taking Complementarity Seriously: On the sense and sensibility of 'classical', 'positive' and 'negative' complementarity. In: Stahn C. (Ed.), The International Criminal Court and Complementarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 233-282.
- Stahn C. & Zeidy M. (Eds.) (2011), The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: From Theory to Practice no. 2009. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Stahn C. (2011), How is the Water? Light and shadow in the first years of the ICC, Criminal Law Forum 22(1): 175-197.
- Stahn C. (2010), The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Stahn C. (2010), Connally Reservation. In: Wolfrum R. (Ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law no. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 662-665.
- Stahn C. & Herik L.J. van den (Eds.) (2010), Future Perspectives on International Criminal Justice. Den Haag: TMC Asser Press.
- Stahn C. (2010), Perspectives on Katanga: An Introduction, Leiden Journal of International Law 23(2): 311-318.
- Stahn C. (2010), The ‘End’, the ‘Beginning of the End’ or the ‘End of the Beginning’? Introducing Debates and Voices on the Crime of ‘Aggression’, Leiden Journal of International Law 23(4): 875-882.
- Stahn C. (2009), Arrest and Surrender to the ICC: A Contextual Reading. In: Bergsmo M. & Kalmanovitz P. (Eds.), Law in Peace Negotiations. Oslo: Peace Research Institute Oslo. 191-217.
- Stahn C. (2009), Judicial Review of Prosecuterial Discretion: On experiments and imperfections. In: Sluiter G. (Ed.), International Criminal Procedure: Towards a Coherent Body of Law. London: Cameron May. 235-266.
- Stahn C. (2009), Judicial Review of Prosecuterial Discretion: 5 Years on. In: Stahn C. & Sluiter G. (Eds.), The Emerging Practice of the International Criminal Court. Leiden, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 247-279.
- Stahn C. & Sluiter G. (Eds.) (2009), The Emerging Practice of the International Criminal Court. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
- Stahn C. (2008), The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration: Versailles to Iraq and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Stahn C. (2008), Jus Post Bellum: Towards a law of transition from conflict to peace. Cambridge: T.M.C. Asser Press/Cambridge University Press.
- Stahn C. & Nerlich V. (2008), The International Criminal Court and Cooperation, Leiden Journal of International Law : 429-430.
- Stahn C. (2008), Complementarity: A Tale of Two Notions, Criminal Law Forum, Criminal Law Forum 19: 87-113.
- Schabas W., Stahn C. & El Zeidy M. (2008), The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: Five Years on, Criminal Law Forum 19(1): 1-3.
- Stahn C. (2008), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Discipline(s), American University International Law Review 23: 311-347.
- Schabas W. & Stahn C. (2008), Legal aspects of the Lubanga Case, Criminal Law Forum 19(3/4): 431-434.
- Stahn C. (2007), Responsibility to Protect: Political Rhetoric or Emerging Legal Norm, American Journal of International Law 101: 99-120.
- Stahn C. (2007), The International Criminal Court and the Shortcomings of Domestic Legislation, Leiden Journal of International Law 20: 165.